The Muslims’ invasion of the Levant in 632 – 644 AD marked the beginning of the Medieval Period, an invasion that changed history forever. The first Islamic dynasty, the Umayyad, ruled the empire from Damascus and considered the Southern Levant (the Land of Israel) as an important backyard. They built Ramla as their province capital, the only new city ever made in the Land of Israel under Islamic rule until 1900. The move of the controlling center to Bagdad by the new Abbasid dynasty in 750 AD marked the decline of the Southern Levant. The Abbasids were replaced by the Fatimids who were replaced by the Seljuqs who were replaced by the Crusaders. In 1099 AD, the Crusaders invaded the Land of Israel and formed the First Kingdom of Jerusalem, an assembly of feudal families ruled by a king. The Crusaders, a small minority in the region, ruled the country through fortified cities, road stations, farms, and churches. In 1187 AD, they lost the kingdom to Saladin, the legendary Ayyubid sultan, after a colossal defeat in the Battle of Hattin. Four years later, Richard the Lionheart conquered the coast and established the Second Crusade kingdom, making Acre, the main port of entry, as their capital city. An agreement with the Ayyubids gave the Crusaders 15 years of control in Jerusalem. Starting in 1265 AD, the Muslim Mamluks were capturing Crusader cities one after another. By 1291 AD, the last Crusader stronghold, the fort of Atlit, was abandoned only a few months after the fall of the capital, Acre. The Mamluk Sultanate ruled the Levant for about 250 years and was replaced by the Ottomans in 1516 AD, which marked the end of the Medieval Period. Today, you can visit medieval Muslim monuments like the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the White Mosque in Ramla, the Nimrod Fortress in the North, and numerous Mamluk road inns (khäns) across the country. Crusader architecture can be seen everywhere in the country including in Jerusalem , Caesarea , Acre, Atlit, Apolonia (Arsuf), Safed , Montfort, Kochav Hayarden (Belvoir), Yehiam, Zippori , and Ateret. Fortified churches can be found in Abu Gosh, Ramla, Beit Govrin, Tiberias (St. Peter’s Church), and Crusader-phase churches in Jerusalem include: The Church of Saint Anne, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Church of Saint Samuel, the Chapel of the Ascension, and the Church of St. John the Baptist in Ein Kerem.